← Kinesics — gestures

The so-called Roman / fascist salute

Arm extended, palm down — gesture neither Roman nor ancient, invented by David 1784, adopted by D'Annunzio 1919 then Mussolini 1925. Criminally banned in Germany, Austria, Belgium and several countries. Distinct from the specific Nazi salute (e0060).

Category : Kinesics — gesturesSubcategory : salutations-politiquesConfidence level : 3/5 (documented hypothesis)Identifier : e0031

Meaning

Target direction : Allegiance to fascism and far-right authoritarianism. Emblematic gesture of the Italian PNF (National Fascist Party) 1922-1943 and, by extension, of all European inter-war fascisms.

Interpreted meaning : Documented grave error: the gesture has NO ancient Roman origin. Pliny the Younger, Tacitus and Cicero never mention it. Attribution to Rome is a cinematic fiction (1907-1930) adopted by fascists. Distinction: e0031 (general fascist salute, Mussolini 1925) vs e0060 (specific Nazi Hitlergruss, 1926-1933).

Geography of misunderstanding

1. The gesture and its meaning

Arm extended horizontally, palm facing downward, sometimes slightly raised. Known as the Roman salute or fascist salute. Historically associated with Mussolini's Italian Fascist regime (1922-1943) and, by extension, all European fascist and neo-Nazi movements. In any contemporary public context, this gesture reads as an affirmation of allegiance to fascism and far-right authoritarianism. There is no innocent or neutral use of this gesture in public space.

2. Why this gesture shocks: the geography of offense

The so-called Roman salute is today one of the most politically charged gestures that exists. In Germany and Austria, performing it in public is a criminal offense (StGB section 86a, Austrian Nazi Symbols Act). In Belgium, legislation on negationism covers this gesture in contexts of apologia for fascism. In Italy, the Mancino Law (1993) sanctions the fascist salute in contexts of racial provocation or neo-fascist propaganda.

Even in countries where it is not explicitly criminalized -- France, Spain, Portugal, the Netherlands -- this gesture systematically provokes major public scandal when performed at political rallies, sporting events, or commemorations. Well-documented cases include athletes, politicians, and public figures whose careers were ended after performing the gesture, even when presented as ironic or accidental.

3. Historical origin: three registers

a) What is factually established (tier-1 sources)

The extended-arm, palm-down gesture has NO verifiable ancient Roman origin. No primary source -- Cicero, Pliny the Younger, Tacitus, Suetonius -- ever describes this gesture as a common salutation in ancient Rome. Scholars specializing in ancient gestures (Corbeill 2004, Nature Embodied, Princeton UP) confirm this absence. Martin M. Winkler (The Roman Salute, Ohio State UP, 2009) demonstrated through exhaustive analysis of iconographic and literary sources that the attribution of the gesture to ancient Rome is a cinematic fiction dating from 1907-1930.

The real historical chain:

• 1784: Jacques-Louis David paints the Oath of the Horatii. He depicts Roman figures with outstretched arms -- a pictorial anachronism in neoclassical style to dramatize the scene. This painting becomes the VISUAL SOURCE of the myth.
• 1907-1930: Hollywood cinema adopts David's gesture as a visual convention in peplum films (historical films set in antiquity). Hollywood INVENTS and spreads the so-called Roman salute as a visual cliche.
• 1919: Gabriele D'Annunzio, poet and nationalist agitator, adopts this gesture during his occupation of Fiume (Rijeka) at the head of his Arditi. This is the FIRST modern political use of the gesture, directly inspired by cinema and painting, not antiquity.
• 1922-1925: Benito Mussolini adopts the salute as the official sign of the National Fascist Party (PNF). He CLAIMS an ancient Roman origin to ideologically legitimize fascism. The reality: pure 20th-century invention.
• 1926-1933: Adolf Hitler and the NSDAP adopt a variant (the Hitlergruss, distinguished in entry e0060) on the Mussolinian model.
• 1945-1960: After the defeat of the fascist and Nazi regimes, progressive criminalization in West Germany (1960, StGB 86a), then Austria.

b) What is documented inference

Allert's thesis (The Hitler Salute, Metropolitan Books, 2008, trans. Jefferson Chase) is that the salute -- in its Nazi version, but by extension fascist -- functioned as a vector of conformity rather than simply its product: performing the gesture forced the individual to publicly manifest their adhesion, making silent dissent impossible. This sociological analysis applies equally to the Mussolinian salute in fascist Italy.

c) What we do not know

The exact modalities of transmission between D'Annunzio and Mussolini are not fully documented in available primary sources. The exact date of D'Annunzio's first use of the gesture at Fiume (September 1919) rests on witness accounts and photographs, without a primary text from D'Annunzio himself explicitly describing it.

4. Contemporary variants and ambiguous uses

The morphological distinction between e0031 (general fascist salute, horizontal extended arm, palm down) and e0060 (Nazi Hitlergruss, arm extended slightly diagonally upward, palm down) is semantically important but practically not very operational: both are penally equivalent in legislations that criminalize either.

In sporting contexts, a supporter raising their arm to point to a player's position can be confused. In cinematographic or theatrical contexts depicting fascist scenes, the gesture is tolerated provided there is explicit framing. In historical commemorations, it may appear in documentaries or museums with clear signage.

A concerning contemporary use: far-right activists will sometimes deliberately invoke ambiguity (athletics, accident) to perform the gesture in public while denying its intentional character. This defense is generally rejected by German and Austrian courts.

5. Practical recommendations

No appropriate use in public or professional context, whatever the declared intention.

In an academic or museographic context: the gesture may be described, illustrated, or analyzed provided explicit framing includes (1) correction of the ancient Roman origin myth, (2) the real historical chain David 1784 to D'Annunzio 1919 to Mussolini 1925, (3) the legal status of the gesture in different jurisdictions.

If you observe this gesture in an ambiguous public context: in Germany and Austria, report it to the authorities; in other countries, document the context before any interpretation.

In an intercultural training context: this gesture is a major pedagogical example of how political propaganda can create and spread a historical myth -- here, the invention of a fictitious ancient Roman tradition to legitimize a 20th-century movement.

Historical origins

MYTH: no ancient source (Cicero, Pliny, Tacitus) documents this gesture. Real chain: David 1784 Oath of the Horatii (pictorial anachronism) → Hollywood peplum 1907-1930 (Winkler 2009) → D'Annunzio 1919 Fiume (first modern political use) → Mussolini 1925 (PNF) → Hitler 1926-1933. Criminalized in Germany/Austria post-WWII.

Practical recommendations

Neutral alternatives

No gestural substitute — gesture prohibited in several countries. In a formal greeting context, handshake or nod.

Sources