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Insects as food (Thailand, Mexico — novelty elsewhere)

Mexican *chapulines* and Thai crickets: a traditional foodstuff laden with Western disgust.

Category : Table & foodSubcategory : interdits-alimentairesConfidence level : 2/5 (sourced hypothesis)Identifier : e0304

Geography of misunderstanding

Three living traditions

In Mexico, chapulines (grasshoppers, genus Sphenarium) have been consumed for ≥3,000 years (archaeological attestation) in the state of Oaxaca, integrated into the diet of the Zapotec, Mixtec, and Maya peoples well before the Spanish arrival in the sixteenth century. Before the introduction of European livestock, they constituted a primary regional source of protein. Today they remain a snack sold in markets and during the Guelaguetza, the patronal festival of Oaxaca. In Thailand, traditional entomophagy has industrialised: more than 20,000 cricket farms operate ≈200,000 enclosures, with an estimated annual production of 7,500 tonnes (Hanboonsong et al., FAO RAP 2013, figures since revised). The Khlong Toei market in Bangkok concentrates the principal wholesalers, and the supply chain exports to the United States, Japan, and the United Kingdom. Beyond these two epicentres, grasshoppers, locusts, mopane worms (southern Africa), termites, weaver ants (Oecophylla), and palm grubs feature in the daily diet of approximately 2 billion humans according to the FAO.

The 2013 FAO report: a global benchmark

The report Edible insects: future prospects for food and feed security (FAO Forestry Paper n°171, 2013), coordinated by Arnold van Huis (Wageningen UR), shifted the subject from folklore to the global food agenda. Two key figures: more than 1,900 species of insects recorded as human food, and approximately 2 billion regular consumers, principally in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. The report documents the advantage in feed conversion ratio: a house cricket (Acheta domesticus) requires 1.1-1.7 kg of feed to produce 1 kg of body mass, against 6.3-6.7 kg for cattle — an efficiency factor of approximately 12×, far removed from the fanciful "2,000×" figure sometimes cited. The FAO does not formally "recommend" entomophagy: the report sets out, documents, and exposes the ecological and nutritional trade-offs.

The European threshold 2021-2023: Novel Food

The European Union classifies insects as novel food under Regulation (EU) 2015/2283. Effective approvals then follow through Commission implementing regulations, on EFSA scientific advice: Tenebrio molitor (yellow mealworm) — Reg. (EU) 2021/882 of 1 June 2021 (dried form), then 2022/169 of 8 February 2022 (frozen, dried, and powdered forms); Locusta migratoria (migratory locust) — Reg. (EU) 2021/1975 of 12 November 2021; Acheta domesticus (house cricket) — Reg. (EU) 2022/188 of 10 February 2022, supplemented by 2023/5 of 3 January 2023 (partially defatted form); Alphitobius diaperinus (lesser mealworm) — Reg. (EU) 2023/58 of 5 January 2023. Four authorised species in total, with an exclusive five-year commercial protection period for each initial applicant. The black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens), often mentioned, is NOT authorised for human consumption — only for animal feed (Reg. EU 2017/893, aquaculture, poultry, swine). Switzerland had preceded the EU: since 1 May 2017, T. molitor, L. migratoria, and A. domesticus have been authorised there for human consumption, and on 21 August 2017 Coop launched the first insect burger in European retail, supplied by the Zurich start-up Essento.

The Western wall of disgust

The seminal work of Paul Rozin (University of Pennsylvania) established that Western disgust toward insects is culturally learned, not biologically programmed: his typology distinguishes core disgust (ideational rejection linked to purity and contamination) from distaste (sensory reflex, Rozin & Fallon 1987). Insects belong to core disgust in Western culture, on the same footing as the majority of invertebrates and reptiles, whereas they are culturally neutral or positive in Southeast Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, and Mesoamerica. Ruby, Rozin & Chan (2015, Disgust, sushi consumption, and other predictors of acceptance of insects as food by Americans and Indians) show that repeated exposure and linguistic repositioning ("protein powder" rather than "ground crickets") significantly increase acceptance. The generational curve is sharp: urban under-35s adopt insect-based snacks more readily than older generations.

Economic failure and redefinition 2024-2025

The entrepreneurial enthusiasm of 2018-2022 (Ÿnsect in France, Protix in the Netherlands) ran up against two realities: thin unit margins compared with soy and fishmeal, and European human consumption that has failed to take off despite novel food authorisations. Ÿnsect, which had raised more than $600M cumulatively and inaugurated the Amiens factory, posted €5.8M in revenue and €80M in losses in 2023, closed its Dutch site, and laid off 20% of its workforce in April 2023, before announcing in January 2025 that it was exploring all options including a third-party takeover. Protix secured a Tyson Foods investment in October 2023 followed by $40M in 2024, on a more modest footprint (14,000 m²). The restaurant Noma in Copenhagen (René Redzepi), five times voted the world's best restaurant (2010-2014, 2021), a pioneer in the use of ants and insects through its Nordic Food Lab since 2008, ended its regular service in December 2024. Global market projections for 2030 remain dispersed: $4.38B (Grand View Research, CAGR 25.1%), $2.09B (Mordor), $9.2B (Strategic Market Research) — a range reflecting the genuine uncertainty. The debate is now shifting from "is this viable?" to "for what use?" — animal feed, premium pet food, niche ingredient rather than a generalised meat substitute.

Historical origins

Entomophagy attested in Mesoamerica (chapulines of Oaxaca, ≥3,000 years, Zapotec, Mixtec, and Maya peoples) and in Southeast Asia. In 2013 the FAO published a benchmark report (van Huis, Forestry Paper n°171) recording 1,900+ species consumed and 2 billion humans concerned. Switzerland authorised them on 1 May 2017 (the first regulated Western market). The EU followed with four Novel Food implementing regulations: Tenebrio molitor (2021/882), Locusta migratoria (2021/1975), Acheta domesticus (2022/188), and Alphitobius diaperinus (2023/58). The Western wall of disgust (Rozin) and the lack of unit profitability led to the Ÿnsect debacle of 2023-2025. The 2030 market is projected between $2B and $9B according to analysts.

Documented incidents

• 2013 — Publication du rapport *Edible insects: future prospects for food and feed security* (FAO Forestry Paper n°171). Pour la première fois, des chiffres globaux sont consolidés : 1 900+ espèces consommées, ≈2 milliards d'humains concernés. Bascule médiatique mondiale du sujet entomophagie.
• 2017 — Le 1ᵉʳ mai 2017, l'OSAV autorise *Tenebrio molitor*, *Locusta migratoria* et *Acheta domesticus* pour l'alimentation humaine — premier marché occidental durablement régulé. Le 21 août 2017, lancement du burger Essento dans environ 100 supermarchés Coop : premier produit insectes en grande distribution européenne.
• 2021 — Le 1ᵉʳ juin 2021, le Règl. (UE) 2021/882 autorise le ver de farine jaune (*T. molitor* séché) — première espèce d'insecte *novel food* dans l'Union européenne. Le 12 novembre 2021, *Locusta migratoria* (Règl. 2021/1975) suit, deuxième espèce autorisée.
• 2024 — Décembre 2024 : fermeture du service régulier de Noma (3 étoiles Michelin, 5× élu meilleur restaurant au monde — 2010, 2011, 2012, 2014, 2021), pionnier du recours aux insectes en haute gastronomie depuis le Nordic Food Lab (2008). Symbole de la difficulté du modèle économique entomophage haut de gamme.
• 2025 — Janvier 2025 : Ÿnsect (≈600 M$ levés, usine d'Amiens) annonce explorer toutes les options dont une reprise par tiers ; Agronutris (Saint-Affrique) dépose un plan de sauvegarde au tribunal. Échec emblématique de la bulle entomophage 2018-2022, dans un contexte de marges unitaires écrasées et de consommation humaine européenne qui ne décolle pas.

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